Slavdom

Chapter 7

Alexander, Tsar (Alexander Romanov, 1777 – r. 1801 – 1825). Tsar of Russia during the Napoléonic period. His political profile in this regard is more complicated than Štúr describes it, shifting as the winds blew between opposing Napoléon and allying himself with him. Although commencing his reign with liberal leanings, he became increasingly more conservative. He was the architect of the Holy Alliance, following the fall of Napoléon, to combat revolutionary movements in Europe. At the fall of Napoléon he was crowned ‘King of Poland’ and ‘Grand Duke of Finland.’

Alexander, Tsar (Amurat (Murad I, 1326 – r. 1362 – 1389). Ottoman Sultan, who expanded Turkish influence in the Slavic Balkans. It was he who fought — and died — at the Battle of Kosovo (15 June 1389) which brought to an end the independence of the remaining Serbian principalities not yet subject to the Ottomans.

Amurat Bach, Alexander von (1813 – 1893). Austrian jurist civil servant. Originally a radical in his political views, his service in the government of the conservative Minister-President Prince Felix Schwarzenberg was, as Štúr mentions, something of a political sea-change. Whether from practical considerations or the unscrupulousness he is often charged with, Bach was transformed from a liberal into a rigid conservative during his time in office as Minister of the Interior (1849 – 1859), supporting policies that many considered oppressive, including the muzzling of the press.

Bach, Alexander von Béla IV (1206 – r. 1235 – 1270). King of Hungary. Routed by the Mongols under Batu Khan at the Sajó River, he fled Hungary for Dalmatia. The Mongols practically razed the entire country, occupying it for a year. Upon Béla’s return, he proceeded to fortify the country, relying on the quasi-independent counts, and waged several wars to re-constitute the country, which had been preyed upon by neighbouring European states. He is known by the Magyars as második honalapító, or ‘the second founder of the state.’ A pious Catholic, three of his children were deemed worthy of veneration by the Church, especially St Margaret of Hungary (canonised in 1943).

Béla IV második honalapító, Bernolák, Anton (1762 – 1813). Slovak Catholic priest and linguist. His proposal for the codification of Slovak was based on the western regions of Slovakia, around Trnava. It was Štúr’s proposal for the central Slovak dialects that eventually carried the day, but Bernolák’s contributions were nonetheless important for the official distinction of Slovak from Czech.

Bernolák, Anton Bestuzhev, Alexander Alexandrovich (1797 – 1837). Russian Romantic poet and soldier. Exiled to the Caucasus for his part in the Decembrist Uprising. He wrote under the pen-name of Marlinsky, by which Štúr refers to him.

Bestuzhev, Alexander AlexandrovichBestuzhev-Ryumin, Mikhail (1801 – 1826). Russian military officer executed for his role in the Decembrist plot.

Bestuzhev-Ryumin, Mikhail Bolesław Chrobry (‘the Brave,’ 966 – r. 992 – 1025). First king of Poland, who expanded his realm westward to encompass Pomerania, Lusatia, and Bohemia, and eastward to Kiev. Ally of Emperor Otto III, yet Poland remained independent of the Holy Roman Empire. Bolesław Chrobry also established a Polish episcopal hierarchy independent of German influence.

Bolesław Chrobry Bolesław III Krzywousty (‘the Wrymouthed,’ 1086 – r. 1107 – 1138). King of Poland. His division of the Kingdom of Poland, described by Štúr, is known in Poland as the rozbicie dzielnicowe or ‘district breakdown.’

Bolesław III Krzywousty rozbicie dzielnicoweBořivoj (c. 852 – c. 890). Historical protoplast of the Přemislid dynasty in the Czech lands. A thane of Great Moravian ruler Svätopluk, he was baptised, along with his wife St Ludmila, by St Methodius.

Bořivoj Břetislav (c. 1002 – 1055). Illegitimate son of Oldřich, Přemislid duke of Bohemia, he successfully opposed Stephen of Hungary’s territorial incursions into the Czech lands, and re-took Moravia from the Poles.

Břetislav Charles IV of Luxembourg (1316 – 1378). Holy Roman Emperor, who made Prague the capital of the empire. He is famed for many improvements to the city, including the Charles Bridge, which is named for him, and the foundation of the University of Prague (1348), which also bears his name.

Charles IV of Luxembourg Chłopicki, Józef (1771 – 1854). Served in the Polish army before the Partitions, and then with the Napoléon, with distinction, eventually rising to the rank of General. He was awarded the Legion of Honour. During the 1830 uprising against Russia, he was in command of all insurrectionary troops for little over a month. His policy of negotiating with the Russians is seen by some as pragmatic, by others as defeatist.

Chłopicki, Józef Colbert, Jean-Baptiste (1619 – 1683). French statesman; Secretary of the Navy and Comptroller General under Louis XIV. Credited with making France a dominant European power.

Colbert, Jean-BaptisteConstantine (Constantine Pavlovich Romanov, 1779 – 1831). Russian Grand Duke. Viceroy of the ‘Kingdom of Poland’ created after the Congress of Vienna and annexed to the Russian Empire. An enigmatic figure, he ruled Poland harshly, yet sympathised with the Polish drive for autonomy. The November Uprising of 1830 drove him from power.

Constantine SS Cyril and Methodius (c. 827 – 869; c. 815 – 884). Brothers, the Thessalonian Apostles to the Slavs. Cyril taught at the Patriarchal Academy in Constantinople, Methodius was the Abbot of a monastery. They were called to Moravia by Rastislav (Rostislav), and proceeded to evangelise the Slavic areas now contained by Slovakia, the Czech lands, and southern Poland. With the Pope’s permission, they translated the liturgy into what is now known as Old Church Slavonic, inventing the Glagolitic alphabet for the purpose — a variation of the Greek alphabet, which eventually developed into the Cyrillic alphabet in use in Russia and other Orthodox lands. The use of Slavic in the liturgy was opposed by German clergy, but ratified by Pope Adrian II, until Pope Stephen V imposed the universal use of Latin on the Slavic areas as well as the rest of Western Europe. With their translations and writings, SS Cyril and Methodius set the foundation for all the Slavic literatures. Their feast day is 14 February in the West, and 11 May in the East.

SS Cyril and Methodius Czajkowski, Michał (1804 – 1886). Polish soldier and poet. After serving as a cavalry officer in a Cossack regiment during the November Uprising of 1830, he emigrated: first to France, and later to Turkey, where he agitated on behalf of his country against Russia. He converted to Islam in order to serve in the Sultan’s armies fighting against Russia in the Crimean War, but later returned to Europe where he re-converted to Orthodox Christianity. One of the few Polish Pan-Slavists, he advocated the accession of all Slavic lands to Russia.

Czajkowski, Michał Čelakovský, František Ladislav (1799 – 1852). Czech poet and translator of the národní obrození [‘national revival’] period. He is most famed for his recreations of Russian and Czech traditional poetry in the Ohlas písní ruských [Echo of Russian Song, 1829] and Ohlas písní českých [Echo of Czech Song, 1839].

Čelakovský, František Ladislav národní obrozeníOhlas písní ruských Ohlas písní českýchDalimil (fl. XIII c.). Purported author of the early Czech chronicle in verse known as the Dalimilova kronika or the Kronika boleslavská. The attribution to ‘Dalimil’ was made only in the XVII century.

Dalimil Dalimilova kronikaKronika boleslavská. Delvig, Anton (1798 – 1831). Russian neoclassical poet of German ancestry. A friend of Pushkin’s, with whom he co-edited the Literary Gazette (1830 – 1831).

Delvig, Anton Literary GazetteDemeter, Dimitrija (1811 – 1872). Croatian poet and dramatist of Greek ancestry, one of the founders of the Croatian National Theatre.

Demeter, DimitrijaDerzhavin, Gavrila Romanovich (1743 – 1816). Russian neoclassical poet, generally considered the most important poet of the Russian XVIII century.

Derzhavin, Gavrila Romanovich Dobrovský, Josef (1753 – 1829). Czech philologist, Catholic priest, founder of comparative Slavic philology and one of the most important Slavic philologists. Among his seminal works are the Geschichte der böhmischen Sprache und Literatur [History of the Czech Language and Czech Literature, 1792], Lehrgebäude der böhmischen Sprache [Method for the Acquisition of the Czech Language, 1809], an important work for the codification of modern Czech, and the Institutiones linguae slavicae dialecti veteris [Principles of the Old Slavic Language, 1822], an important study of Old Church Slavonic.

Dobrovský, JosefGeschichte der böhmischen Sprache und LiteraturLehrgebäude der böhmischen SpracheInstitutiones linguae slavicae dialecti veterisDomaschko, Michael (Michał Domaško, 1820 – 1897). Lusatian Lutheran pastor, devotional poet, editor of an anthology of Lusatian Sorb poetry; one of the founders of the Sorbian Society, with which Štúr came into contact during his trip to Lusatia.

Domaschko, Michael Dušan, Stefan (Stefan Uroš IV, 1308 – r. 1331 – 1355). King of Serbia, from 1346 Emperor of the Serbs, Greeks, and Albanians. Military leader, who significantly extended the territory of his kingdom, at one time waging war against the Byzantine Empire (although being the Emperor’s son-in-law), annexing portions of the empire to his realm. He established a code of law that long remained in use.

Dušan, Stefan Emmerich, Georg (1422 – 1507). He founded the replica of Christ’s Tomb constructed in Görlitz (between 1481 and 1504) following his pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1465. Besides the Tomb of Christ (Das heilige Grab), the complex also contains the Adam Chapel (Adamskapelle) and Golgothakapelle (Golgotha Chapel).

Emmerich, Georg Das heilige GrabAdamskapelleGolgothakapelleFriedrich II Hohenstaufen (1194 – r. 1220 – 1250). Holy Roman Emperor. Cultured ruler, whose court in Sicily is noted for its multinational culture and significance for the development of poetry in the Italian vernacular. Excommunicated thrice.

Friedrich II HohenstaufenGéza (c. 940 – r. c. 970 – 997). Grand Prince of the Hungarians. Father of St Stephen, the first King of Hungary.

Gza Gogol, Nikolai Vasilievich (1809 – 1852). Ukrainian-Russian humorist and dramatist. His writings had a great influence on modern Russian literature, from Realism to the quasi-Kafkaesque absurd. His unfinished novel Мёртвые души [Dead Souls, 1842] is his most well-known work in prose, whereas Ревизор [The Government Inspector, 1836], a satirical drama, is one of the classics of the Russian stage.

Gogol, Nikolai Vasilievich Gostimysl (Gostomysl, fl. X c.) Grand Prince of the Obrodites, father of St Ivan, first hermit of Bohemia.

GostimyslGoszczyński, Seweryn (1801 – 1876). Polish soldier and poet. He took part in the November 1830 Uprising. His most famous work is the Gothic narrative poem Zamek Kaniowski [The Kaniów Castle, 1828].

Goszczyński, Seweryn Zamek KaniowskiGundulić, Ivan (1589 – 1638). Croatian poet. Author of the epic Osman (composed 1651) celebrating the Polish victory over the Turks at the Battle of Chocim.

Gundulić, Ivan OsmanHanka Václav (1791 – 1861). Czech poet and literary scholar, most well-known for his ‘discovery’ of the Rukopis královédvorský and Rukopis zelenohorský [The Králový Dvůr and Zelená hora Manuscripts, 1817, 1818], purporting to be mediaeval Czech poetry. Most scholars, beginning with Josef Dobrovský, considered them forgeries, although they caused a great furore among nationally-minded Czechs and Slovaks such as Štúr, who considered them to be evidence of the antiquity of Czech literature.

Hanka VáclavRukopis královédvorský Rukopis zelenohorský Haulik, Bishop Juraj (Juraj Haulik Váralyai, 1788 – 1869). Slovak-born first Cardinal Archbishop of Zagreb. Despite Štúr’s reservations, Haulik, who twice served as ban of Croatia, was a tireless supporter of Croatian identity, especially as regards official respect for the Croatian language.

Haulik, Bishop Juraj ban Haupt, Joachim Leopold (1797 – 1883). Lusatian Lutheran pastor. With Jan Arnošt Smoler, editor of the anthology Pěsnički hornich a delnich Łužiskich Serbow [Songs of the Sorbs of Upper and Lower Lusatia, 1841, 1843].

Haupt, Joachim Leopold Pěsnički hornich a delnich Łužiskich Serbow Heinrich (der Vogler, i.e. ‘the Fowler,’ 876 – r. 919 – 936). Son of Otto the Illustrious, founder of the Ottonian dynasty of Holy Roman Emperors. He expanded his realm by victorious military campaigns against the Danes and the Czechs.

HeinrichHerder, Johann Gottfried von (1744 – 1803). German Lutheran pastor, precursor of the Sturm und Drang and Romantic movements. His theories concerning language and the sense of history had an influence on the development of ideas of ethnic nationality attractive to thinkers like Štúr.

Herder, Johann Gottfried vonSturm und DrangHerwegh, Georg (1815 – 1875). German poet and socialist revolutionary; he took part in the 1848 uprising against the government in Baden, at the head of a large contingent of German and French workers.

Herwegh, GeorgHněvkovský, Šebestián (1770 – 1847). Czech poet associated with the National Revival movement of Czech Romanticism. During a time when the modern Czech language and literary traditions were just forming, he sought patterns for his original verse not in translations from foreign works, but in folk literature.

Hněvkovský, ŠebestiánHollý, Ján (1785 – 1849). Slovak Catholic priest, poet and translator — the first great poet writing in the Slovak tongue as codified by Bernolák — which has earned him the somewhat overblown title of the ‘Slovak Homer.’ His most significant works are three epics, all dealing with the legends and ancient history of the Great Moravian Empire: Svätopluk (1833), Cyrillo-Methodiada (1835) and Slav (1839). He also translated Virgil’s Aeneid into Slovak (1828), as well as composing devotional poetry.

Hollý, Ján Svätopluk , Cyrillo-Methodiada Slav AeneidHraběta, Jan (1796 – 1859). Czech clergyman, chaplain at the Saxon court in Dresden, educator and classical scholar. He taught Czech to Prince Johann of Saxony (later King of Saxony, 1801 – r. 1854 – 1873).

Hraběta, Jan Hunyadi, János (c. 1407 – 1456). Hungarian general, governor of Hungary (1446 – 1452); earlier military governor of Severin (in present-day Romania), governor of Transylvania. He waged war against the Ottoman Empire; like Cromwell in England, he is known for creating an early modern-type regular army (of multinational character), counting some 30,000 men, who successfully repulsed the Turks from many of the Slavic areas of the Balkans in 1444, forcing the Sultan to sue for a ten-year peace. King Władysław Jagiełło acceded to the Hungarian throne with Hunyadi’s support in 1439, to die five years later fighting the Turks in Varna (for which he is known in Poland as ‘Władysław Warneńczyk.’) In 1456, he achieved a signal victory over the Turks besieging Belgrade, with an army of untrained commoners.

Hunyadi, János Immisch, Friedrich (Jaroměr Hendrich Imiš, 1819 – 1898). Lusatian Lutheran pastor, and Pan-Slavist, one of the founders of the Sorbian Society, with which Štúr came into contact during his trip to Lusatia.

Immisch, Friedrich Jaroslav of Šternberk (1220? – 1287?). Legendary Moravian warrior, who is said to have won a signal victory over the Mongols (Tatars) at Olomouc in the mid-XIII century. He is first mentioned in the 1541 Kronice české [Czech Chronicle) of Václav Hájek z Libočan.

Jaroslav of ŠternberkKronice českéJelačić, Josip (1801 – 1859). Croatian soldier and governmental figure, serving as ban of Croatia from 1848. Štúr describes him as somewhat of a Hamletish figure for his timidity in furthering Croatian independence, while remaining loyal to Vienna.

Jelačić, Josip ban Jiskra z Brandýsa, Jan (c. 1400 – c. 1469). Moravian warrior, who spent most of his active life in Slovakia. He fought in the Hussite wars in Moravia, and against both Turks and Hungarians in Slovakia, where he created a de facto independent realm that lasted some twenty years. Although a good portion of his military force consisted of former Hussites, he was a Catholic.

Jiskra z Brandýsa, Jan Jungmann, Josef (1773 – 1847). Czech philologist, translator, and poet of the National Revival period, whose lexicological and literary-historical work was of great significance for the development of the modern Czech literary idiom. Among his other writings, his translation of Milton’s Paradise Lost is greatly valued as evidence of the suppleness and expressiveness of Czech.

Jungmann, Josef Paradise LostKakhovsky, Pyotr Grigoryevich (1799 – 1826). Russian military officer, executed for his part in the Decembrist uprising.

Kakhovsky, Pyotr Grigoryevich Kálmán (1070 – r. 1095 – 1116). Learned king of Hungary, who ascended the throne at the death of his childless uncle, St László I. Croatia was annexed to Hungary during his reign.

KálmánKaplíř ze Sulevic, Kašpar (1525 – 1621). Czech nobleman, Imperial counsellor and Austrian general. Executed for his role in the ‘Bohemian Revolt’ of Czech Protestants during the Thirty Years’ War.

Kaplíř ze Sulevic, Kašpar Karamzin, Nikolai Mikhailovich (1766 – 1826). Russian poet and historian of anti-Polish convictions.

Karamzin, Nikolai MikhailovichKatančić, Matija Petar (1750 – 1825). Croatian Franciscan. Poet, translator of the Bible into Croatian, promoter of Croatian literature.

Katančić, Matija PetarKlicpera, Václav Kliment (1792 – 1859). Czech dramatist of the National Revival period, also a gymnasium professor. Amongst his students were the future writers Karol Jaromír Urban and Jan Neruda.

Klicpera, Václav KlimentKlin, Bjedrich Adolf (1792 – 1855). Lusatian Sorb activist, jurist, representative to the Saxon diet, who saw to the passage of the law allowing the use of the Sorb language in schools.

Klin, Bjedrich AdolfKollár, Ján (1793 – 1852). Czechoslovak poet, Evangelical minister, promoter of Slavic cultural ‘reciprocity,’ which did not suppose any political union between Slavic ‘tribes.’ His most influential work is Slávy dcera [Sláva’s Daughter, 1824, 1832], a Dantesque journey through Slavdom, which had a great impact on the development of Pan-Slavist thought. He also published significant collections of Slovak folksong.

Kollár, Ján – ). Slávy dcera Komenský, Jan Amos (1592 – 1670). Moravian writer, minister of the Moravian church, widely respected in Europe as an educational reformer (Poland, Great Britain, Sweden, Hungary, Netherlands).

Komenský, Jan Amos Konrad III Hohenstaufen (c. 1093 – r. 1138 – 1152). King of Germany (King of the Romans). First king of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, crusader.

Konrad III Hohenstaufen Kopernik, Mikołaj (Copernicus, 1473 – 1543). Polish priest and astronomer of partial German descent, whose work De revolutionibus orbium coelestium libri vi (1543) set forth the heliocentric theory.

Kopernik, Mikołaj De revolutionibus orbium coelestium libri viKorvin Matej (1443 – r. 1458 – 1490). King of Hungary and Croatia, pretender to the Czech crown, populariser of Renaissance culture north of the Alps.

Korvin Matej Kossuth, Lajos (1802 – 1894). Hungarian politician and revolutionary of Slovak extraction, although he considered himself a Magyar and promoted the magyarisation of the Hungarian state. Elected governor of Hungary by the Hungarian Diet in revolt against Vienna in 1848, he fled the country in 1849 upon the entry of Russian troops at the request of Austria, and spent the remainder of his life abroad — including stays in Great Britain and the United States.

Kossuth, LajosKościuszko, Tadeusz (1746 – 1817). Polish general and revolutionary of Belarusian heritage. Kościuszko fought on the Colonial side during the American War of Independence, returning to Poland to take part in the military actions against Russia during the period that led to the partitions of the country. His last struggles, in 1794, when he assumed command of all the insurrectionary forces, ended in defeat after some initial successes, and this led to the complete disappearance of Poland from the map of Europe. This last campaign is popularly known as the Kościuszko Uprising. He refused repeated requests of Napoléon to command portions of his army, due to Napoléon’s equivocating policies concerning Polish independence. His body rests in the royal necropolis in the crypts of Wawel Cathedral in Kraków.

Kościuszko, Tadeusz Kotlyaryevsky, Ivan (1769 – 1838). Ukrainian poet and dramatist, hailed as the father of modern Ukrainian literature. His Eneida (1798) is a farcical transmutation of Virgil’s epic amongst the Cossacks, and is the first work written entirely in Ukrainian.

Kotlyaryevsky, IvanEneidaKozlov, Ivan Ivanovich (1779 – 1840). Russian romantic poet and translator from the English.

Kozlov, Ivan IvanovichKráľ, Janko (1822 – 1876). Slovak romantic poet and revolutionary who took part in the 1848 uprising against the Magyars.

Kráľ, Janko Krasicki, Ignacy (1735 – 1801). Polish priest and Neoclassical poet. Bishop of Warmia, eventually Archbishop of Gniezno (Primate of Poland). As a writer, he excelled in all genres of Neoclassical literature, from the fable to the picaresque novel. Of special interest are his mock epics, such as Myszeis [The Mouseiad, 1775].

Krasicki, Ignacy MyszeisKrasiński, Zygmunt (1812 – 1859). Polish dramatist, often grouped with Mickiewicz and Słowacki as one of the national bards of Poland. He is most noteworthy for his somewhat Byronic closet drama Nieboska Komedia [The Undivine Comedy, 1835], which is both a critique of Romantic poetry as an escapist worldview, and a treatment of the class struggles, which he foresaw as an insoluble threat to the European social fabric.

Krasiński, ZygmuntNieboska KomediaKraszewski, Józef Ignacy (1812 – 1887). Polish Romantic author, the chief prose writer of the period. He authored over 600 works, mostly novels based on Polish history and legend. Arguably the most popular of these remains Stara baśń [An Ancient Tale, 1876], which deals with an idealised pre-Christian past.

Kraszewski, Józef IgnacyStara baśńKrušwica, Jan (1811 – 1880). Lusatian Lutheran pastor and devotional author; one of the founders of the Sorbian Society, with which Štúr came into contact during his trip to Lusatia. His son Jan Bjarnat Krušwica (1845 – 1919) continued his father’s activities in the fields of Sorb literature and culture.

Krušwica, Jan Kucharski, Andrzej (1795 – 1862). Polish Slavist, who travelled among the Lusatian Sorbs, and in Slovakia. His most noteworthy work is the Najdawniejsze pomniki prawodawstwa słowiańskiego [Earliest monuments of Slavic lawmaking, 1838].

Kucharski, AndrzejNajdawniejsze pomniki prawodawstwa słowiańskiego Kunhuta (Kateřina z Poděbrad, 1449 – 1464). First wife of Matej Korvin. Betrothed to him at the age of eleven, the marriage was consummated only in 1463. She died in childbirth at age fourteen.

Kunhuta Kupa. Legendary rebel, who is said to have risen against King St Stephen in 998.

Kupa.Kuzmány, Karol (1806 – 1866). Slovak Lutheran pastor, poet, editor of the literary periodical Hronka, officer of the Matica slovenská.

Kuzmány, KarolHronkaLazar, Stefan (Hrebeljanovič, c. 1329 – 1389). Serbian ruler, executed by the Turks after the catastrophic defeat of Serbian forces on the Kosovan Field.

Lazar, Stefan Lehmann, Johann (Jan Wićaz, c. 1820 – 1866). Lusatian Lutheran pastor and devotional poet; one of the founders of the Sorbian Society, with which Štúr came into contact during his trip to Lusatia.

Lehmann, Johann Lelewel, Joachim (1786 – 1861). Polish historian of German descent, professor and friend of Adam Mickiewicz. As a scholar, he was mainly interested in the Middle Ages, composing works on mediaeval numismatics, geography, and the early history of Poland.

Lelewel, Joachim Libuše. Legendary daughter of Prince Krok, wife of Přemysl Oráč, the legendary first ruler of the Czech lands. Prophetess, founder of the city of Prague. The story of her judgement may be found in the purportedly mediaeval Manuscript of Zelená hora of Václav Hanka.

Libuše.Manuscript of Zelená horaLjutovid (fl. XI c.). Serbian ruler of territories presently in western Herzegovina and Croatia.

Ljutovid Lubjenski, Handrij (1790 – 1840). Lusatian Lutheran minister, Lusatian activist, collector of Sorb folksong and legend.

Lubjenski, HandrijMácha, Karel Hynek (1810 – 1836). Czech Romantic poet, the national bard of the Czech nation. His Byronic narrative poem Máj (1836 – 1836) is the most important text of the National Revival period. An actor during his student years in Prague, his life was cut short after ingesting cholera-infected water while helping out on a bucket-brigade during a fire at Litoměřice. Influenced by Walter Scott and Adam Mickiewicz as well as Byron, he left behind fragments of historical novels, plays, and lyric poetry in both Czech and German, as well as a journal that was only fully published in the 1990s.

Mácha, Karel HynekMájMaciejowski, Franciszek (1793 – 1883). Polish historian; author of a four-volume work on Slavic jurisprudence.

Maciejowski, Franciszek Magnuszewski, Dominik (1809 – 1845). Polish actor and playwright, whose works are mostly derived from Polish history.

Magnuszewski, Dominik Malczewski, Antoni (1793 – 1826). Polish Romantic poet, mainly known for his Byronic narrative poem Marya (1825). A mountain climber, he was the first Pole to conquer the summit of Mont Blanc.

Malczewski, Antoni MaryaManteuffel, Otto Theodor (1805 – 1882). German politician, Prime Minister of Prussia during the constitutional discussions following the unrest of 1848.

Manteuffel, Otto TheodorMatúš z Trenčína (Matúš Čák, Csák Maté, c. 1260 – 1321). Slovak palatine of Hungarian descent, claimed by both nations as a symbol of the struggle for independence. In his poem, not only does Štúr seek to emphasise Matúš as a Slavic patriot, by shrouding his birth in mystery, but he also plays fast and loose with historical fact. He clothes his hero’s forceful acquisition of territories as a patriotic endeavour to re-establish the Great Moravian Empire, and also greatly simplifies his relations with the Czech King Václav.

Matúš z Trenčína Maurice (539 – r. 582 – 602). Byzantine emperor and solider, author of the Strategikon or Military Manual, in book nine of which, as Štúr notes, he describes the Slavs against whom he has fought.

MauriceStrategikonMetternich, Klemens von (1773 – 1859). Austrian statesman, originally from the Rhineland. Foreign Minister of the Austrian Empire from 1809 until 1848. He was an architect of Europe redrawn at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, which had wide-ranging ramifications for Poland and the nations of Central Europe.

Metternich, Klemens vonMihailo, Prince of Serbia (Mihailo Obrenovič, c. 1780 – r. 1815-1839 – 1860). Serbian monarch, participant of First and Second Serbian Uprisings, and architect of Serbia’s autonomy from the Ottoman Empire.

Mihailo Prince of Serbia Mickiewicz, Adam (1798 – 1855). Poland’s greatest poet. His literary output includes important works in all genres, save prose fiction — unless we include here his Księgi narodu polskiego i piełgrzymstwa polskiego [Books of the Polish Nation and Polish Pilgrimage, 1832], which inspired Štúr’s own pseudo-biblical ‘The Slovaks in Ancient Days, and Now.’ Pan Tadeusz (1835) is the national epic of Poland, though it is more of a rustic idyll than a truly Vergilian epic. Dziady [Forefathers’ Eve, 1823, 1832], perhaps his most important work, initiates the Polish Monumental stage, and his Sonnets (1826), contain both the finest descriptive sonnets ever written (his Crimean cycle) and a Petrarchan cycle of erotic sonnets that follow the progress of a relationship from initial enthusiasm through cynical disillusionment. Mickiewicz died in Turkey, attempting to form a Polish Legion to wage war against the Russian Empire during the Crimean War.

Mickiewicz, AdamKsięgi narodu polskiego i piełgrzymstwa polskiegoPan TadeuszDziadySonnetsMierosławski, Ludwik (1814 – 1878). Polish general, who took part in all the major uprisings of the Poles, from that of November 1830 through the January Insurrection of 1863, of which he was elected the first dictator. He was involved in the Polish uprisings in the Poznań region against Prussia, for which he is mentioned by Štúr.

Mierosławski, Ludwik Miloš, Prince of Serbia (Miloš Obrenovič, 1821 – r. 1840-1842, 1860 – 1868). Serbian monarch, advocate of Balkan unity in the face of the Ottoman threat. He was deposed as a young man, then regained his throne only to be assassinated eight years later.

Miloš, Prince of SerbiaMilota z Dědic (fl. XIII c.) Styrian nobleman, accused (perhaps unjustly) of betraying Czech king Přemysl Otakar II at the Moravian battle of 1278. The manner in which the legendary Milota withdraws his men from the field at the crucial point in the battle is similar to the treason described by Štúr in Matúš of Trenčín.

Milota z DědicMatúš of TrenčínMilutinović (Sima Milutinović Sarajlija, 1791 – 1847). Serbian poet, who fought in the uprisings against the Turks.

Milutinović Mojmír II (c. 870 – r. 894 – 906). Last ruler of the Great Moravian Empire. Internal conflicts with his brother Svätopluk II, the ruler of Nitra, and external pressure from Arnulf, the eastern Frankish king, led to the fall of the Great Moravian Empire. His brother Svatoboj is a legendary figure, as is the story of Svätopluk’s conspiracy with the Magyars against him. (Mojmír himself settled the Magyars along the Tisa, after their appearance in his realm, and used them at least once as allies in his struggle against Arnulf in Pannonia).

Mojmír IIMosik z Aehrenfeldu, August (Korla Avgust Mósak Kłosopólski 1820 – 1898). Lusatian lawyer and translator, one of the founders of the Sorbian Society, with which Štúr came into contact during his trip to Lusatia, in fact, its first president. He translated Šafárik’s Slovanské starožitnosti [Slavic Antiquities] into German.

Mosik z Aehrenfeldu, AugustSlovanské starožitnosti Muraviev-Apostol, Sergei Ivanovich (1796 – 1826). Russian military officer, anti-serfdom agitator and republican theorist, executed for his role in the Decembrist plot.

Muraviev-Apostol, Sergei Ivanovich Musin-Pushkin, Alexei Ivanovich (1744 – 1817). Russian historian and antiquarian. He is most remembered for discovering the manuscript of the Lay of Igor’s Campaign, which was lost in the conflagration that consumed his entire library during Napoléon’s firing of Moscow in 1812.

Musin-Pushkin, Alexei IvanovichLay of Igor’s CampaignMušicki, Lukijan (1777 – 1837). Serbian poet and classicist, translator of Horace and Ovid.

Mušicki, LukijanNaruszewicz, Adam (1733 – 1796). Polish poet and historian, Jesuit priest, titular Bishop of Smoleńsk.

Naruszewicz, Adam Nejedlý, Vojtěch (1772 – 1844). Czech priest, poet and translator of the National Revival period. He is most well known for his epic poems concerning Czech history, such as Přemysl Otakar v Prusích [Přemysl Otakar in Prussia, 1832] and Karel Čtvrtý [Charles IV, 1835].

Nejedlý, VojtěchPřemysl Otakar v Prusích Karel Čtvrtý Nemanja, Stefan (1113 – r. 1166-1196 – 1199). Grand Prince of Serbia, who waged war against Byzantium during the stormy years of the reigns of the Comnenus Emperors. Later, he renounced his throne in favour of his son to become a monk, taking the name Simeon. He was canonised by the Serbian Orthodox Church in 1200; his feast day is 26 February.

Nemanja, StefanNikolai, Tsar (Nikolai Romanov, 1796 – r. 1825 – 1855). Tsar of Russia, whose reign commenced with the Decembrist Revolt against him. A staunch conservative, he centralised the government, dealt strictly with all dissent, and presided over the industrial and economic development of his realm.

Nikolai, Tsar Otakar (Ottokar I, 1155 – r. 1192 – 1230). Duke, later King of Bohemia, during whose reign the Czech lands saw a large influx of German settlers.

Otakar Otto (Otto III, 980 – r. 996 – 1002). Holy Roman Emperor. He furthered Christianity in the east by establishing ecclesiastical structures in Poland independent of German jurisdiction, and acknowledging the independence of the Polish kingdom in the person of King Bolesław Chrobry. He also established the future St Stephen as the first King of Hungary.

Otto Padurra, Tymko (Tomasz, 1801 – 1871). Poet and musician, creative in both Polish and Ukrainian.

Padurra, Tymko Palacký, František (1798 – 1876). Czech historian, politician and activist. His main work is the five-volume Dějiny národu českého v Čechách a v Moravě [History of the Czech Nation in Bohemia and Moravia], 1836 – 1867; he also wrote in German.

Palacký, FrantišekDějiny národu českého v Čechách a v MoravěPavel, Tsar (1754 – r. 1796 – 1801). Son of Catherine the Great, Tsar of Russia. By turns autocratic and liberal (he forbade corporal punishment of free men, and strove to ameliorate the condition of the serfs), he was assassinated by disgruntled officers.

Pavel, Tsar Pestel, Pavel Ivanovich (1793 – 1826). Russian military officer, republican revolutionary theorist, executed for his role in the Decembrist plot.

Pestel, Pavel Ivanovich Pešina, Tomáš Jan (1629 – 1680). Catholic bishop, historian of Moravia, among whose works are the three volume Prodromus Moravographiae (1663) and Mars moravicus (1677), a military history of the region.

Pešina, Tomáš Jan Prodromus MoravographiaeMars moravicusPetaw, Karl (Korla Moric Pjetawa, 1811 – 1880). One of the founders of the Sorbian Society, with which Štúr came into contact during his trip to Lusatia. He became a teacher in Luppa.

Petaw, Karl Petrovič-Njegoš, Petar, or Petar II (1813 – 1851). Vladika (i.e. Prince-Bishop) of Montenegro. He sought to modernise the Montenegrin state by centralising power, but his taxation politics caused serious dissent among the people. He was an early proponent of unity with the Serbian state, and is credited as being one of the early architects of South Slavic unity — something which obviously held great appeal for Štúr. Petrovič-Njegoš is also considered an important Serbian poet.

Petrovič-Njegoš, Petar, or Petar IIPiasecki, Paweł (1579 – 1649). Catholic bishop, Royal Secretary to King Zygmunt III Vasa, author of a chronicle of Poland.

Piasecki, Paweł Piast (fl. X c.). Piast Kołodziej (the Wheelwright) is the legendary founder of the Piast dynasty of kings. His miraculous ascension to the premier place in the Polanie tribe — which was to form the core of the Polish kingdom — plays into the popular legend of the Polish monarchy arising from the people. The most noteworthy ruler of the Piast dynasty was King Kazimierz III, ‘the Great’ (c. 1310 – r. 1333 – 1370), founder of the Akademia Krakowska (later, Jagiellonian University).

Piast Poděbrad (Jiří z Kunštát a Poděbrad, 1420 – r. 1458 – 1471). The ‘Hussite King,’ the only Czech ruler to be elected to his throne by the Czech aristocracy, and the last King of Bohemia of Czech blood. He is noteworthy for his concept, worked out in concert with his advisor Antonio Marini of Grenoble, of a peaceful federation of European states, which would respect the inner policies of each member, and refer disputes to an international tribunal.

PoděbradPogodin, Mikhail Petrovich (1800 – 1875). Russian historian, devoted disciple of the mediaeval chronicler Nestor and proponent of the Norman extraction of Rurik.

Pogodin, Mikhail Petrovich Pohlenz, Bruno (fl. XIX c.). One of the founders of the Sorbian Society, with which Štúr came into contact during his trip to Lusatia.

Pohlenz, Bruno Polák, Milota Zdirad (1788 – 1856). Czech soldier and poet. His Vznešenost přírody [Sublimity of Nature, 1813], inspired in part by James Thompson’s Seasons, had an influence on the development of the modern poetic idiom in Czech during the National Revival period.

Polák, Milota Zdirad Vznešenost přírody SeasonsPoniatowski, Józef (1763 – 1813). Polish military hero, nephew of Stanisław Poniatowski, the last King of Poland, Marshal of France who died at the Elster while covering the French retreat at Leipzig.

Poniatowski, Józef Prešeren, France (1800 – 1849). National poet of Slovenia.

Prešeren, FranceProcopius of Caesarea (c. 500 – 560). Late Byzantine historian. He speaks of the Slavs and their traditions of government in book seven of his History of the Wars.

Procopius of CaesareaHistory of the WarsPřemyslav (Nošák, c. 1332 – 1410). Duke of Cieszyn, Governor of Kraków, Governor of Bohemia. A skilled diplomat, whose power and influence was felt in both Poland and Bohemia.

PřemyslavPřemyslids. Czech royal dynasty, which ruled from the IX to the early XIV century.

Přemyslids.Puchmajer, Antonín Jaroslav (1769 – 1820). Catholic priest, poet and translator, one of the moving lights behind the National Revival of Czech as a literary language in the late XVIII – early XIX century.

Puchmajer, Antonín JaroslavPushkin, Alexander Sergeyevich (1799 – 1837). The greatest poet of Russia, and one of the greatest in the entire history of world literature. Among his works are the ‘novel in verse’ Eugene Onegin (1825 – 1832), which destroys the myth of the Byronic hero, Boris Godunov (1825), perhaps the most successful Shakespearean tragedy of the Romantic period, and numerous other important works in prose and verse, such as the narrative poem ‘The Bronze Horseman,’ which he composed as a reply to a portion of his friend Adam Mickiewicz’s Forefathers’ Eve. He died at age 37 as the result of a duel with his brother-in-law Georges d’Anthès, a guards officer, which tragedy was the inspiration for Štúr’s lament ‘Pushkin.’ It is unclear whether or not d’Anthès’ unhealthy fascination with Pushkin’s wife Natalia was the efficient cause of the duel, or whether it was orchestrated by Pushkin’s enemies in Russia.

Pushkin, Alexander SergeyevichEugene Onegin Boris GodunovForefathers’ Eve.Radowitz, Joseph von (1797 – 1853). Prussian diplomat, advocate of German unification at the Frankfurt Congress.

Radowitz, Joseph vonRastislav (r. 846 – 870). Second ruler of the Great Moravian Empire. It was he who effected the Christianisation of the Western Slavs, by inviting SS Cyril and Methodius to evangelise his realm. In 1994 he was canonised a saint by the Orthodox Church in the Czech lands and Slovakia.

Rastislav Rentsch, Karl (Jan Korla Rjenč, fl. XIX c.). One of the founders of the Sorbian Society, with which Štúr came into contact during his trip to Lusatia; later, a Lutheran clergyman.

Rentsch, Karl Rurik (c. 830 – 879). Founder of Novgorod, Kievan Rus, and thus Russia; a Viking.

Rurik Ryleyev, Kondraty Fyodorovich (1795 – 1826). Russian military officer, Romantic poet, executed for his role in the Decembrist plot.

Ryleyev, Kondraty Fyodorovich Samo (fl. 600 – 660). Eastern Frankish king who established the first Slavic state, extending from Slovakia through Bohemia, north into the territory of the Sorbs, and south into the territory of the Slovenes.

Samo Sauer Karl (Korla Bohuměr Sauer, 1820 – 1844). One of the founders of the Sorbian Society, with which Štúr came into contact during his trip to Lusatia; he died while studying for the Lutheran ministry.

Sauer Karl Schlözer, August Ludwig von (1735 – 1809). German historian of Russia. As a linguist, he is famous for coining the term ‘Semitic languages.’

Schlözer, August Ludwig vonSchulze, Adolph (Adolf Šołta, fl. XIX c.). One of the founders of the Sorbian Society, with which Štúr came into contact during his trip to Lusatia.

Schulze, Adolph Schwarzenberg, Felix (1800 – 1852). Prime minister of Austria following the 1848 revolutions; creator of the centralised Austrian Empire, opponent of German consolidation.

Schwarzenberg, FelixSedláček, Josef Vojtěch (1785 – 1836). Czech priest, mathematician. His contribution to the National Revival was in the invention of mathematical terms for the resuscitated Czech language.

Sedláček, Josef VojtěchShevirev, Stepan Petrovich (1806 – 1864). Russian poet, critic and historian of literature.

Shevirev, Stepan Petrovich Shishkov, Alexander Semyonovich (1754 – 1841). Slavophile Russian Admiral and linguist; author of a trilingual Russian-French-English naval dictionary, president of the Russian Academy of Literature.

Shishkov, Alexander Semyonovich Skrzynecki, Jan Zygmunt (1787 – 1860). Polish general. He fought with Napoléon and as supreme commander of the Polish insurrectionary forces during the 1830 November Uprising against Russia. Lampooned by Juliusz Słowacki in Kordian for timidity and his desire to negotiate with the Russians, rather than fighting.

Skrzynecki, Jan ZygmuntKordianSmoleŕ, Jan Arnošt (1816 – 1884). Lusatian Slavist and translator. Founder of the Towaŕstwo za łužiske rěče a stawizny [Society for the Propagagation of the Languages and History of Lusatia]. Collector of Lusatian Sorb folksong, his Pjesnički hornych a deľnych Łužiskich Serbow [Folksongs of the Upper and Lower Lusatian Sorbs] were published in 1841 and 1843.

SmoleŕJan ArnoštPjesnički hornych a deľnych Łužiskich SerbowSobieski, Jan III (1629 – r. 1674 – 1696). King of Poland and military hero, who fought in many of Poland’s wars. His most famous victory was the lifting of the siege of Vienna by the Turks in 1683. Educated at Jagiellonian University, Sobieski is also important to the Baroque literature of Poland as a stylist, for his love-letters written to his wife Marysia over the years 1665 – 1683.

Sobieski, Jan IIISpytihněv I (c. 875 – r. 894 – 915). Czech prince, who impelled the nascent Czech state away from the Great Moravian Empire, orienting Bohemia toward Bavaria.

Spytihněv I Stephen, St (István, c. 975 – r. c. 1000 –1038). Grand Prince of the Hungarians, subsequently first King of the Hungarians. Accepting Christianity, and later propagating the faith in the territories under his sceptre, Stephen is credited as the establishing monarch of the Kingdom of Hungary. He did battle against both pagan Magyars and the German troops of the Holy Roman Empire. He was canonised a saint of the Catholic Church in 1083; his feast day is 16 August (20 August and 30 May in Hungary); he is especially venerated in Hungary and Slovakia.

Stephen, St Stillbrich, Friedrich (fl. XIX c.) One of the founders of the Sorbian Society, with which Štúr came into contact during his trip to Lusatia.

Stillbrich, Friedrich Suleiman I (‘the Magnificent,’ 1494 – r. 1520 – 1566). Turkish sultan, whose incursions into Europe led to the taking of Belgrade in 1521 and the ravaging of Hungary shortly thereafter. He too laid siege to Vienna in 1529, unsuccessfully.

Suleiman I Svätopluk (Czech: Svatopluk, Polish: Świętopełk, c. 840 – r. c. 867 – 894). Svätopluk I, Prince of Nitra, Duke of Moravia, King of the Great Moravian Empire, which experienced its greatest expansion under his rule, after his deposing of his uncle Rastislav. His younger son Svätopluk II (c. 884 – 899) rebelled against his older brother Mojmír, which initiated the decline and eventual fall of the Great Moravian Empire.

Svätopluk Szemere, Bertelan (1812 – 1869). Magyar poet and Prime Minister of the temporarily independent Hungary during the rebellion against Vienna in 1848.

Szemere, Bertelan Šafárik, Pavol Josef (Czech: Pavel Josef Šafařík, 1795 – 1861). Slovak poet, Slavist and philologist, mainly creative in Czech. His noteworthy works include: Geschichte der slawischen Sprache und Literatur nach allen Mundarten [The History of the Slavic Language and Literature in all its Dialects, 1826] and Slovanské starožitnosti [Slavic Antiquities, 1837, 1865]. Among his poetry, Tatranská múza s lýrou slovanskou [The Tatra Muse with the Slavic Lyre, 1814] is an important pleromatic work in Czech.

Šafárik, Pavol JosefGeschichte der slawischen Sprache und Literatur nach allen MundartenSlovanskéstarožitnosti Tatranská múza s lýrou slovanskouTalvj (Therese Albertine Luise von Jakob Robinson, 1797 – 1870). German linguist and translator, especially of Serbian folksongs, which found approbation in Goethe’s eyes. She studied Native American languages after moving to the United States with her American husband Edward Robinson, and in 1840 published a literary exposé of the Ossian poems as forgeries.

TalvjThun, Leo (1811 – 1888). Austrian count native to Bohemia, proponent of Austrian federalism.

Thun, Leo Tomasseo, Niccolò (1802 – 1874). Italian Catholic linguist and poet; despite his interest in Serbo-Croatian and identification with ‘our nation,’ more of a cosmopolitan than the Slav that Štúr paints him to be. His Iskrice [Sparks] cited by Štúr were published in 1842.

Tomasseo, Niccolò IskriceTugumír (fl. 900 – 950). Polabian Slav leader.

Tugumír Tupý, Karel (1813 – 1881). Catholic priest, poet of the Czech national revival period; his pen-name was Boleslav Jablonský.

Tupý, Karel Turinský, František (1797 – 1852). Czech poet and dramatist of the Czech national revival period.

Turinský, FrantišekTyl, Josef Kajetán (1808 – 1856). Czech dramatist and actor of the national revival period; arguably the most important Czech romantic apart from Karel Hynek Mácha. Among his noteworthy plays is the Strakonický dudák aneb Hody divých žen [The Bagpiper from Strakonice, or the Feast of Wild Women, 1847], as well as historical dramas from the Hussite past, such as Jan Hus and Žižka z Trocnova [Žižka of Trocnov]. He is also the author of the Czech national anthem, ‘Kde domov můj’ [Where my Homeland is]. For a short time, he was a Czech representative to the Austrian diet following the 1848 Revolution.

Tyl, Josef Kajetn Strakonický dudák aneb Hody divých žen, Jan HusŽižka z TrocnovaUstryalov, Nikolai Gerasimovich (1805 – 1870). Russian historian, proponent of royal absolutism and the russification of non-Russian nations of the empire.

Ustryalov, Nikolai GerasimovichVinařický, Karel Alois (1803 – 1869). Catholic priest, classicising poet, but propagator of the Czech National Revival. He is also important to the movement as a proponent of children’s literature in Czech.

Vinařický, Karel AloisVladimir Sviatoslavich (‘The Great,’ c. 958 – r. 969 – 1015). Prince of Novgorod, Grand Prince of Kiev of the Rurik dynasty. He is noteworthy for expanding the extent and power of the nascent state of Kieven Rus. A pagan for much of his adult life, he converted to Christianity and subsequently Christianised Rus; as St Vladimir of Kiev he is venerated in both Catholic and Orthodox Churches (his feast day is 15 July).

Vladimir Sviatoslavich Vocel, Jan Erazim (1802 –1871). Czech poet and dramatist of the National Revival period; father of Czech archeology, envoy to the Austrian diet following the 1848 Revolution.

Vocel, Jan ErazimVratislav I (888 – r. 915 – 921). Czech prince, brother of Spytihněv I (c. 875 – r. 894 – 915) who preceded him on the throne after the Czech lands’ separation from the Great Moravian Empire.

Vratislav I Vraz, Stanko (Jakob Frass, 1810 –1851). Croatian poet, translator, collector of folksongs, Illyrist.

Vraz, Stanko Vukotinović, Ljudevit (1813 – 1893). Croatian poet, Illyrist, revolutionary during the Spring of the Peoples in 1848; botanist.

Vukotinović, LjudevitWanak, Jurij Ernst (1817 – 1887). Lutheran clergyman, Lusatian Sorb activist.

Wanak, Jurij Ernst Windischgrätz, Alfred (Windisch-Grätz, 1787 – 1862). Austrian Field Marshal, who served in the wars against Napoléon, but is most remembered for suppressing the uprising in Prague following the Slavic Congress in 1848, suppressing a revolt in Vienna in the same year by laying siege to the capital city, and leading Austrian troops against the rebellious Magyars.

Windischgrätz, Alfred Yaroslav (‘the Wise,’ c. 978 – r. 1010 – 1054). Prince of Novgorod, Grand Prince of Kiev, son of St Vladimir. He promulgated the legal code subsequently known as the Russkaya Pravda.

Yaroslav .Yelagin, Ivan Perfilievich (1725 – 1794). Russian historian, poet, translator, director of court theatres under Catherine the Great.

Yelagin, Ivan Perfilievich, Yevgeny (Metropolitan Yevgeny Bolkhovitinov, 1767 – 1837). Orthodox Metropolitan of Kiev and Galicia from 1822. A respected antiquary, friend of the poet Derzhavin.

Yevgeny Zaleski, Józef Bohdan (1802 – 1886). Polish Romantic poet of the so-called ‘Ukrainian School.’

Zaleski, Józef BohdanZalužanský, Adam (1558 – 1613). Czech classicist and botanist.

Zalužanský, AdamZejleŕ, Handrij (1804 – 1872). Lusatian poet and Lutheran pastor. His Sorbian Grammar was published in 1830, which was epochal in its codification of the Sorbian language, reforming its orthography on Czech and Polish models.

Zejleŕ, Handrij Zhukovsky, Vasily Andreyevich (1783 – 1852). Russian Romantic poet, translator from German and English.

Zhukovsky, Vasily AndreyevichZrínski, Nikola Šubíc (c. 1507 – 1566). Croatian Ban, soldier. Defeating the Turks at Szigetvár, he halted Ottoman advances into Europe, a victory in many ways as significant as Jan III Sobieski’s lifting of the Siege of Vienna in 1683.

Zrínski, Nikola ŠubícZygmunt II August (1520 – r. 1548 – 1572). Polish king, who waged successful wars against Muscovy, adding the territories of present-day Estonia and Latvia to the Polish kingdom. He united Poland and Lithuania into the ‘Kingdom of Both Nations’ with the Union of Lublin in 1569.

Zygmunt II AugustZygmunt I Stary (‘the Old,’ 1467 – r. 1506 – 1548). Polish king, to whom Prussia submitted in formal homage in 1525. Patron of the arts, propagator of the Italian Renaissance north of the Alps.

Zygmunt I Stary Žižka, Jan (c. 1316 – 1424). Czech general, follower of Jan Hus, participant in the Battle of Grunwald (15 July 1410) during which a multinational army under King Władysław Jagiełło defeated the German Knights of the Cross, thus attaching Pomerania to the Polish Crown. Žižka is credited with inventing field artillery by affixing cannon to wagons, and also for the strategy of drawing wagons into a defensive circle.

Žižka, Jan